Maureen Dennis et al: Understanding of Literal Truth, Ironic Criticism, and Deceptive Praise Following Childhood Head Injury. Abstract:

“Children with closed head injury (CHI) … may have difficulty with comprehension tasks involving first- and second-order intentionality, such as those involved

in understanding irony and deception. We studied how 6- to 15-year-old children, typically developing or with CHI, interpret scenarios involving literal truth, ironic

criticism, and deceptive praise. Children with severe CHI had overall poorer mastery of the task. Even mild CHI impaired the ability to understand the intentionality

underlying deceptive praise. CHI, especially biologically significant CHI, appears to place children at risk for failure to understand language as externalized

thought.” Brain and Language 2001, 78(1)